Religion, Pilgrimages, and Religious Tourism in Turkey
Turkey (Türkiye), the home to various ancient civilisations, also dwelled various religions on its venerable lands. While the remnants of these cultures are at every step in the country, according to the 2023 Ipsos survey, 83% follow Islam, 2% identify as Christian, 12% as nonbelievers, while 2% follow different kinds of religions, and the remaining 2% prefer not to unveil their answer. This analysis of statistics reveals a nuanced spiritual landscape, one that quietly challenges the monolithic narrative of religious homogeneity.
Turkey has been home to all three great revealed religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – for centuries, while also hosting other monotheistic or polytheistic religions even centuries before Christ.
Ancient Faiths in Anatolia and their Remnants
The World’s Oldest Temple Göbekli Tepe
Hidden among the hills near Şanlıurfa lies the oldest temple in the world, Göbekli Tepe (Göbeklitepe), an archaeological marvel dating back to 9600 BC. Often called the "cradle of civilisation," this site redefines the timeline of organised religion in Turkey. Its towering stone pillars, etched with animal motifs, suggest an early form of communal worship. Göbekli Tepe reminds us that Turkey’s religious history began long before the Abrahamic faiths took root, showcasing an age when humanity sought to understand the mysteries of existence.
Hittite Mythology and Religion
In the heart of Anatolia, the ancient capital of Hattusa (Hattuşa) reflects an elaborate religious system that existed long before Turkey's modern faith tradition. This sanctuary made of massive stone walls and ceremonial gates mirrors the might of the Hittite Empire, which worshipped a pantheon of deities. The site, a UNESCO World Heritage gem, represents an early form of organised worship, connecting Turkey’s religious history to the roots of faith itself.
A Mountain of Gods: Mount Nemrut
The giant stone heads atop Mount Nemrut (Nemrut Dağı) in southeastern Turkey are an enduring legacy of the Kingdom of Commagene (Kommagene Krallığı). Built in the 1st century BCE by King Antiochus I Soter (I. Antiokhos Soter), this sanctuary includes Hellenistic, Persian, and Anatolian cultural elements. The colossal statues of deities gaze timelessly over the landscape, offering a celestial connection to the past.
The Legendary City of Troy
Known globally through Homer’s epics, Troy (Truva) holds a special place in Turkey’s religious history. Layers of settlements, dating back to 3000 BCE, echo a spiritual landscape that evolved over millennia. While the city is famous for its legendary wars, it also provides evidence of early polytheistic worship – faith traditions that eventually made way for Christianity in Turkey and later Islam.
Healing Waters and Sacred Spaces of Hierapolis
An ancient Phrygian city of Hierapolis upon the thermal springs of Pamukkale, believed by ancient civilisations to be the gate to hell, celebrates the interplay between religion and nature in pre-Islamic Turkey. Its temples, theatres, and necropolis served both spiritual and practical purposes. Early Christians later adapted its sacred spaces, showcasing how Turkey's culture and religion evolved over centuries, layering one faith over another.
Zoroastrianism in Turkey
Zoroastrianism, one of the world’s oldest religions, left its mark on Anatolia during the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE), when the region was part of the empire’s vast territories. The religion's focus on fire as a sacred element influenced local traditions, and remnants of fire altars have been discovered in places like Ani, near the Armenian border. Additionally, inscriptions in the ancient Lycian language, believed to have links to Zoroastrian beliefs, have been found in southwestern Turkey. More recently, an ancient Persian temple and artefacts from the fifth century B.C. were uncovered near Amasya. Although there are no active Zoroastrian communities in Turkey today, historical sites and cultural imprints testify to the religion’s presence in the region centuries ago.
Other Ancient Faiths
Sites like Alacahöyük, with their sphinx gates and burial mounds, speak to the dawn of religious practices in Turkey. These early civilisations set the stage for a land that would later become a crossroads of religions – welcoming Christianity, Judaism, and eventually Islam.
Jewish Heritage in Turkey
Turkey has been home to Jewish communities for centuries, from Sephardic traditions and architectural marvels to flourishing cultural stories. From Istanbul to Izmir, ancient synagogues, heritage sites, and captivating tales showcase Turkey's deep Jewish roots. Balat, Istanbul's historic Jewish quarter, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, enchants with colourful Ottoman-era houses, cobbled streets, and synagogues like Ahrida. Once home to Sephardic Jews fleeing Spain. Other notable Jewish districts include Izmir's Karataş, preserving heritage through synagogues, cemeteries, and stories of resilience and coexistence.
Jewish communities in Turkey
The Karaites, a Turkish Jewish group, settled in Istanbul during Byzantine times but faced expulsions until Mehmed II, who welcomed them back. Once thriving in areas like Karaköy and Hasköy, their community has dwindled, with their heritage preserved through the Hasköy kenesa and the Turkish Karaim Foundation.
Sephardi Jews form 96% of Turkey's Jewish population, with Ashkenazi, Italian, Romaniote, and Constantinopolitan Karaite communities making up the rest.
The term "Ashkenazi" once referred to German lands but came to mean all Eastern European Jews. In Türkiye, Ashkenazim descended from those who migrated from Eastern Europe to the Ottoman Empire.
Romaniote Jews, Greek Jews of the Eastern Mediterranean for over 2,000 years, saw their culture absorbed by the Sephardic influx in Turkey.
The Dönme, Sabbatean crypto-Jews of the Ottoman Empire, secretly upheld their Jewish faith and Kabbalistic beliefs after converting to Islam, primarily in Thessaloniki.
Over 1000 years of Christianity in Anatolia
Christianity in Turkey began in the earliest days of the faith, with Anatolia serving as a focal point for its spread.
The Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya) in Istanbul stands as a timeless symbol of Turkey’s religious and cultural history. Built in 360 AD as a Byzantine Christian cathedral, it became a Roman Catholic cathedral during the Crusades, an Ottoman mosque after the 1453 conquest, and later a museum under modern Turkey’s secular reforms in 1935. Redesignated as a mosque in 2020, its history reflects the complex relationship between Christianity, Islam, and the evolving concept of religious freedom in Turkey. With its majestic dome, ancient mosaics, and columns repurposed from the Temple of Artemis (Artemis Tapınağı), it remains as a tribute to Turkey’s faith traditions and the enduring legacy of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires.
The Different Branches of Christianity in Turkey
Since the Great Schism of 1054 severed ties between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, fragments of these faiths have endured in modern Turkey.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity, once the backbone of the Byzantine Empire, now whispers through the land as a minority faith. Its heart beats in the Greek Orthodox Church, with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as its global shepherd.
The Catholic Church, diverse in its expression, follows five liturgical rites in Turkey: Roman, Eastern, Chaldean, Armenian, Byzantine, and West Syriac – a mosaic of devotion across time and tradition.
History and Development of the Islamisation of Anatolia
In a land of paradoxes, Turkey, where faith and reason, East and West, and the past and future mingle, the journey through faith and governance is one of paradox and transformation. For centuries, the land of Anatolia stood as an anchor of civilisations, where empires rose and fell, leaving their faiths upon the soil. Islam spread along the Silk Road in Anatolia with the Seljuks' conquest in the 11th century, but it was under the Ottoman Empire that Islam blossomed into an institution of state and society, shaping the art and architecture, as well as the cultural, and spiritual backbone of the region. The territory witnessed numerous battles between Muslims and Christians, driven by the Crusades and the Byzantine–Seljuk wars, reflecting the enduring struggle for dominion. The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of Christian dominance in Anatolia, solidifying Istanbul as the heart of a vast empire that stretched across three continents and led the Islamic world for seven centuries.
The Different Islamic Branches in Turkey
The two main branches of Islam in Turkey are Sunni Hanafi of the Muslims and the Sunni Shafi, dominant in Turkish Kurdistan, while different variations of Sufism additionally play an important role in the country’s socio-cultural ecosystem.
The Shia Twelver Shi'ism branch is nearly 85% of all Shias in the world. Among the prominent religious minorities, Alevis (Alevilik) stand out as the largest group, representing a significant proportion of the population. Blending elements of Shia Islam with distinct rituals, Alevis maintain a prosperous spiritual heritage, particularly across Anatolia.
The Alawites (Aleviler), concentrated near Hatay and Adana, are another layer to Turkey's faith traditions. Their Levantine Arabic roots and unique practices set them apart, though assimilation into Turkish language and culture continues to influence younger generations.
The Sufis – Additionally, Sufism stands as a profound current within Islam, quietly interwoven with Sunni and Shia identities alike. Its practice unfolds through tariqas – brotherhoods united by their quest for spiritual clarity and connection. Sufism blossomed in Turkey under Jalaluddin Rumi in Konya. Its orders, like the Mevlevi, are renowned for practices such as dhikr chants and the hypnotic whirling of the dervishes, drawing admirers from across the globe.
Secularisation of Turkey
Yet, the Ottoman Empire, glorious and expansive, began to falter in the 19th century. Wars with European powers, internal strife, and the encroachment of Western ideals sowed the seeds of change. As the empire's influence diminished, a movement of western-educated nationalists emerged, calling for modernisation and renewal. Mustafa Kemal, later known as Atatürk, rose from these turbulent times, a military leader turned revolutionary, determined to sever Turkey from its imperial past and forge a new nation built on secular ideals.
In 1923, the Republic of Turkey, since 31 May 2022, officially the Republic of Türkiye (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti) was declared, and with it, Atatürk initiated wide-ranging reforms. The Islamic caliphate, which for centuries had tied up religious authority with governance, was abolished. Islam, which had shaped Turkish identity for centuries, was unseated as the cornerstone of statecraft. Instead, the government embraced secularism – separating religion from the state while acknowledging its place in society. This shift was not merely political but cultural. The adoption of the Latin alphabet, reforms in education, law, and governance, and the redefinition of religious roles were bold steps aimed at reorienting Turkey towards Western modernity.
Secularism in Turkey, however, has always been more nuanced than a simple rejection of faith. The country remained predominantly Muslim, but its leadership insisted on a clear boundary between spiritual beliefs and state policies. This paradox defined Turkish society in the 20th century, with its majority-Muslim population trying to harmonise faith with modern governance.
The landmarks of this transformation are as striking as their legacy. Hagia Sophia, once a church, then a mosque, and later a museum, and again a mosque, stands as a symbol of Turkey’s layered religious history and its secular aspirations. The reforms of Atatürk brought about profound societal shifts, but they also stirred debates that resonate today, particularly among conservatives who see secularism as an estrangement from Turkey's Islamic heritage.
Major Religious Holidays, Festivals, and Celebrations in Turkey
Religion is a significant part of Turkish everyday life, shaping festivals that unite sacredness and joy. Ramadan, a month of fasting and charity, culminates in the joyous Eid al-Fitr, a time for feasting and family that offers a perfect moment for halal holidays and tours. Similarly, Eid al-Adha honours Ibrahim’s sacrifice with prayers and the sharing of meat among loved ones and those in need.
Mevlid Kandili celebrates the birth of the Prophet Muhammad, marked by prayers and poetry. Ashura, a day of mourning, recalls Imam Hussein’s martyrdom at Karbala, observed with processions and remembrance.
Turkey’s historic churches come alive during Christmas and Easter, their hymns and candlelit rituals blending East and West. These moments celebrate hope amid lasting traditions.
Turkey’s cultural festivals, like Hagia Sophia Day and the Feast of the Holy Cross, incorporate religious significance with history. All of these prove Turkey’s inequality of faiths, where Islamic and Christian traditions coexist in harmony, creating a melting pot of celebrations.
Did You Know That?
The minarets first rose with the Umayyads in the 7th century, their slender forms inspired by the towering spires of Christian churches – most notably the Basilica of Saint John the Baptist in Damascus. Wherever you find yourself in Turkey – whether in the streets of Istanbul or the quiet expanse of Anatolia – your days will be shaped by the call to prayer (Ezan). Five times each day, from the pale light before dawn to the fading glow after dusk, the muezzin's voice spills out across the rooftops.
April 20, 2022: On this day, Turkey's muezzins, Muhsin Kara and Alpcan Çelik rose above a global stage, winning the Otr Elkalam (Scent of Speech) competition. This remarkable event, which drew the finest muezzins from around the world, crowned Kara as its champion, awarding him SAR 2 million ($533,200). Çelik followed closely, claiming second place and a prize of SAR 1 million ($266,600).
Islam, with its principles of halal and haram, extends its reach beyond the spiritual, governing what is permissible and lawful, from food and drink to the rules that shape existence. Yet, Turkey’s story is not one of Islam alone. The history of religions in Turkey is layered and complex, encompassing Christianity, Judaism, and minority religions, each leaving its mark on the culture and traditions of the region. Private Jewish heritage tours, Christian pilgrimages to Biblical places, and Halal Islamic tours can be organised to the many holy places in Turkey.
While Islam dominates Turkey's religious landscape, its constitution safeguards freedom of belief - a testament to the country’s commitment to secularism. For travellers and cultural enthusiasts alike, Turkey's religious diversity enriches its story, affirming a dynamic coexistence of faiths amid a modern secular state.